Most textbooks date the establishment of the "Publicity Bureau" in 1900 as the beginning of the modern PR profession. Of course, there are many early forms of public influence and communication management in history. Basil Clarke was considered the founder of the PR profession in England with the establishment of Editorial Services in 1924. Academic Noel Turnball suggests that PR was systematically used in Britain first by evangelical religious and Victorian reformers, especially opponents of slavery. In each case the early promoters focused on their particular movements and not to be employed more generally.
Propaganda was used by both sides to garner domestic support and condemn the enemy during the First World War. PR activists entered the private sector in the 1920s. Public relations became the first established in the US by Ivy Lee or Edward Bernays, then spread internationally. Many American companies with PR departments spread practices to Europe after 1948 when they created a European subsidiary as a result of Marshall's plan.
The second half of the 20th century was the era of professional development in public relations. Trade associations, PR news magazines, international PR agencies, and academic principles for the profession were founded. In early 2000, press release services began to offer social media press releases. The Cluetrain manifesto, which foresees the impact of social media in 1999, was controversial in its time, but in 2006, the influence of social media and new internet technologies was widely accepted.
Video History of public relations
The ancient origins
Although the term "public relations" has not been developed, academics such as James E. Grunig and Scott Cutlip identify early forms of public influence and communication management in ancient civilizations. According to Edward Bernays, one of PR pioneers, "The three main elements of community relations are practically as old as society: telling people, persuading people, or uniting people with people." Scott Cutlip said the historic event has been defined as PR retrospectively, "a decision by which many parties can quarrel."
A clay tablet found in ancient Iraq promoting more advanced farming techniques is sometimes regarded as the first example of known public relations. The leaders of Babylon, Egypt and Persia created pyramids, obelisks and statues to promote their divine right to lead. In addition, claims of magical or religious authority are used to persuade the public about the right of kings or pharaohs to rule.
The ancient Greek cities produced sophisticated rhetoric, as analyzed by Isocrates, Plato and Aristotle. In Greece there are supporters called "sophists". Plato and others say sophistication is dishonest and misleading the public, while the book " Public Relations as Communication Management " says they are "mostly an ethical lot" that "uses the principle of persuasive communication. " In Egypt, the court counsel consulted the pharaohs to speak frankly and the clerk documented Pharaoh's actions. In Rome Julius Caesar wrote the first campaign biography that promoted his military success. He also commissioned bulletins and poems to support his political position. In medieval Europe, craftsmen were organized into guilds that governed their collective reputation. In England, the Lord Chancellors acts as mediator between the ruler and the subject.
Urban Pope II's recruitment for the crusade is also sometimes referred to as a public relations effort. Pope Gregory XV established the term "propaganda" when he created the Congregatio de Propaganda ("congregation for spreading the faith"), who used trained missionaries to spread Christianity. This term did not carry a negative connotation until it was associated with publicity around the World War II government. In the early 1200s, Magna Carta was created as a result of Stephen Langton lobbying British barons to force King John to recognize the authority of the church.
Maps History of public relations
Antecedents
Explorers like Magellan, Columbus and kelvin kasiwulaya and Talent Gonsalo use exaggerated claims of splendor to attract settlers to come to the New World. For example, in 1598, the remote swampy area of ​​Virginia was described by Captain Arthur Barlowe as follows: "The land is the most abundant, sweet, fruitful and healthy of the whole world." When the colony wrote back to Europe about Virginia's colonial difficulties, including the death toll caused by the conflict with India, pamphlets with anonymous authors were circulated to convince potential settlers and criticisms rebuked.
The first bulletins and the first daily newspapers were established in Germany in 1609 and 1615 respectively. Cardinal Richelieu of France has pamphlets that support his policies and attack his political opposition. The government also created a publicity bureau called Information and Propaganda and a weekly newspaper originally controlled by the French government, The Gazette. In the mid-1600s, both sides of the British Civil War conflict used pamphlets to attack or defend their respective monarchies. Poet John Milton wrote an anonymous pamphlet advocating ideas such as freeing divorce, establishing the republic and the importance of free speech. An anonymous pamphlet in 1738 by Maria Theresa of the Austrian Empire was very influential in criticizing the freemasons and advocating an alliance between the British, Dutch and Austrian governments.
In 1641, Harvard University sent three preachers to England to raise money for missionary activity among the Indians. To support fundraising, the University produced one of the earliest fundraising brochures, First New England Fruits . Early versions of press releases were used when King's College (now Columbia University), sends announcements of the 1758 graduation ceremony and several newspapers print information. Princeton was the first university to make it a routine practice of supplying newspapers with information on campus activities.
According to Noel Turnball, a professor from RMIT University, more systematic forms of public relations began when the public began to organize for social and political movements. The Society for the Eradication of the Abolition of Trade Slave was founded in England in 1787. It published books, posters, and held public lectures in England to advocate slavery. Industries that rely on slavery seek to convince the middle class that it is necessary and that slaves have a humane living condition. The Slave Trade was abolished in 1807. In the US, the movement to abolish slavery began in 1833 with the creation of the American Anti-Slavery Society, using tactics adopted from the British abolitionist movement. According to Edward Bernays, the US abolitionist movement uses "every device of communication, appeal, and action available", such as petitions, pamphlets, political lobbying, local communities, and boycotts. The South responded by defending slavery on the basis of economy, religion and the constitution. In some cases, propaganda promoting the abolition of slavery was banned in The South and abolitionists were killed or imprisoned. Public relations also plays a role in the abolitionist movement in France, Australia and in Europe.
Boston Tea Party has been called a "public relations event" or a fake event because it is an event intended to influence the public. Pamphlets such as Common Sense (1775-76) and The American Crisis (1776-1783) were used to spread anti-British propaganda in the United States, as well as the slogan "taxation without representation is tyranny. " After the revolution was won, disputes took place over the Constitution of the United States. Constitutional advocates sent a letter now called Federalist Papers to major news outlets, which helped persuade the public to support the constitution. The exaggerated stories of Davy Crocket and the California Gold Rush were used to persuade people to fight against Mexico and migrate westward in the US respectively.
Author Marvin Olasky said public relations in the 1800s was spontaneous and unfocused. In the 1820s, Americans wanted to disprove the perspectives of French nobles that American democracy run by "the masses" had no "sense of history", no gratitude to those who had served it, and no meaning of the meaning of virtue. '"To combat this perception, the French aristocrat Marquis de Lafayette, who helped fund the American Revolution, was invited to tour the United States, each community he visited commissioned to welcome him and promote his visit.In the mid-1800s PT Barnum founded the American Museum and Barnum and Bailey Circus, he became famous for publishing his circus using manipulative techniques, for example, he announced that his museum would showcase a 161-year-old woman who had become a Washington nurse and then produce an elderly lady and a fake birth certificate.
In the 1860s, large railway companies built the Transcontinental Railroad (Central Pacific Railroad in Sacramento, California, and Union Pacific Railroad in New York City) engaged in "sophisticated and systematic corporate relationships" to raise the $ 125 million needed to build a railroad along the 1676 miles. To raise money, companies need to keep "interesting images for potential bond buyers, [and maintain relationships] with members of Congress, California state legislature, and federal regulators, with workers and potential workers, and with journalists."
Early environmental campaign groups such as the Coal Abatement Society and the Congo Reform Association were formed in the late 1800s. By the late 1800s many current standard media relations practices, such as conducting interviews and press conferences, emerged. Industrial companies are beginning to promote their public image. The German steel and warfare company, Krupp, created the company's first press department in 1870 to write articles, brochures, and other communications that advertise the company. The first US PR department was founded in 1889 by Westinghouse Corporation. "The first department of public relations was created by inventor and industrialist George Westinghouse in 1889 when he hired two people to publicize his pet project, an alternating current (AC) power." The first appearance of the term "public relations" is in the 1897 Railway Library Book .
Origin as a profession
The Book of Community Relations Today: An Introduction says that, although scholars disagree on the origins of public relations, many have identified the early 1900s as their beginning as paid professions. According to Barbara Diggs-Brown, an academic from the American University School of Communications, the public relations field links her work in historic events to improve her validity, but did not start as a professional field until about 1900. Scott Cutlip said, "we arbitrarily place the beginning of public relations with the establishment of the Publicity Bureau in Boston in the mid-1900s. " He explained that the origin of the PR can not point to the right date, as it evolves over time through a series of events. Most textbooks on public relations say that it was first developed in the United States, before it spreads globally; However, Jacquie L'Etang, an academician from England, said that it was developed in the UK and US simultaneously. Noel Turnball claims that it started as a professional field in the 18th and 19th centuries with British evangelicals and Victorian reformers. According to academic Betteke Van Ruler, public relations activities did not begin in the European Continent as a professional field until the 1920s.
According to Stuart Ewen's academic, most of the PR efforts in the US at the time were "damage control". According to Goldman, from about 1903 to 1909 "many newspapers and almost all mass circulation magazines are featured in detail, annoying articles illustrate how some industries destroy their shareholders, burden the public or corrupt politics." The public is becoming increasingly critical of big business. Anti-corporate and Progressive Pro-reform sentiment is reflected in the newspaper, which dramatically increases in circulation as paper costs decrease. Public relations was established, in part, to defend corporate interests against sensational and hyper-critical news articles. It is also influential in promoting consumerism after the emergence of mass production. Initial pioneer
Publicity Bureau is the first PR agency and was founded by former Boston journalists, including Ivy Lee. Ivy Lee is sometimes called a PR father and influential in building it as a professional practice. In 1906, Lee published the Declaration of Principles, which said that public relations work should be done openly, should be accurate and cover topics of public interest. According to historian Eric Goldman, the principle declaration marks the beginning of an emphasis on giving information, rather than being misled, publicly. Ivy Lee is also credited with developing modern press releases and a "two way street" philosophy to listen and communicate with the public. In 1906, Lee helped facilitate the first positive media coverage of the Pennsylvania Railroad after inviting the press to the scene of a train accident, despite objections from executives. At that time, confidentiality about company operations was a common practice. Lee's work is often identified as spin or propaganda. In 1913 and 1914, the mining union blamed the Ludlow Massacre, where on-strike miners and their families were killed by state militia, the Rockefellers and their coal mining operations, The Colorado Fuel and Iron Company. On behalf of the Rockefeller family, Lee publishes a bulletin called "The Facts Regarding the Struggle in Colorado for Industrial Freedom," which contains false and misleading information. Lee warned that Rockefeller was losing public support and developing a strategy that Junior followed to improve it. Junior must overcome his embarrassment, go personally to Colorado to meet with miners and their families, check the condition of homes and factories, attend social events, and especially to listen carefully to complaints. This is a new suggestion, and attracts widespread media attention, paving the way for resolving conflicts, and presenting a more humane version of Rockefeller. In response, the workers' press said Lee "twisted the facts" and called him a "shadowy liar", a "fraudster" and "public opinion poison." In 1917, Bethlehem Steel announced it would begin a publicity campaign against the perceived mistakes about them. The Y.M.C.A. open a new press secretary. AT & T and others also started their first publicity program.
Edward Bernays, the nephew of Sigmund Freud, is sometimes also referred to as the father of PR and the first professor of profession for his work in the 1920s. He takes the approach that the audience must be carefully understood and convinced to see things from the client's point of view. He wrote his first book on homework and taught his first college course at New York University in 1923. Bernays also first introduced the practice of using front groups to protect the interests of tobacco. In the 1930s he started his first vocational course in PR. Bernays is influenced by Freud's theory of the subconscious. He wrote several books, including Crystallizing Public Opinion (1923), Propaganda (1928), and The Engineering of Consent (1947). He sees homework as an "applied social science" that uses insights from psychology, sociology, and other disciplines to scientifically manage and manipulate irrational and "like" public thoughts and behaviors.
In 1929, Edward Bernays helped the Lucky Strike cigarette brand increase its sales among female demographers. Research shows that women are reluctant to carry a pack of Lucky Strike cigarettes, because the brand's green color scheme goes against popular fashion choices. Bernays persuaded fashion designers, charity events, interior designers and others to popularize green. He also positions cigarettes as a Freedom Torch representing rebellion against male-dominated male norms.
According to Ruth Edgett of Syracuse University, Lee and Bernays have "early and spectacular success in improving PR from the art of selling snake oil to a call for true communicators." However, "at the end of their career, both Lee and Bernays take clients with obviously despicable values, thus exposing themselves and their work to public criticism." Walter Lippmann was also a contributor to the early PR theory, for his work on the public opinion books (1922) and The Phantom Public (1925). He coined the term "approval," based on the idea that public approval should be persuaded by experts to support a democratic society.
Former journalist Basil Clarke is considered the founder of PR in the UK. He founded the first public relations agency in the UK, Editorial Services, in 1924. He also wrote the world's first code of ethics for the field in 1929. Clarke wrote that PR, "should look right and should look complete and honest." Arthur W. Page is sometimes regarded as the father of "corporate community relations" for his work with American Telephone and Telegraph Company (AT & amp; T) from 1927 to 1946. The company rejected the public against its monopoly efforts. In the early 1900s, AT & amp; T has rated that 90 percent of press coverage is negative, which is reduced by 60 percent by changing business practices and disseminating information to the press. According to business historian John Brooks, Page positions the company as a public utility and increases the public's appreciation for its contribution to society. On the other hand, Stuart Ewen writes that AT & amp; T uses his advertising dollars with newspapers to manipulate his coverage and asks the PR team to write feature stories to emulate independent journalism. Initial campaign
Edward Clarke and Bessie Tyler were influential in growing the Ku Klux Clan into four million members for three years using publicity techniques in the early 1920s. In 1926, the Imperial Marketing Council was formed by the British government to encourage preference for goods produced in the UK. It was folded in 1933 because of government cuts. In 1932, a pamphlet " The Projection of England " advocated the importance of Britain managing its reputation at home and abroad. The Ministry of Information was established in England in 1937.
Franklin Delano Roosevelt and Woodrow Wilson were the first President to emphasize the use of publicity. In the 1930s Roosevelt used the media to promote The New Deal and blame the company for the country's economic problems. This causes companies to recruit their own public relations to defend themselves. Roosevelt's anti-trust efforts encourage companies to try to persuade the public and the legislators "that bigger [companies] are not necessarily more sinister." Wilson uses the media to promote his government reform program, The New Freedom. He formed the Public Information Committee.
In the 1930s, the National Association of Manufacturers was one of the first to create a major campaign promoting capitalism and a pro-business point of view. It lobbied against unions, The New Deal, and 8 hours of work a day. The NAM tried most unsuccessfully to convince the public that the public interest was harmonized with the interests of the company and to create relations between trade and democratic principles. During World War II, Coca-Cola promised that "everyone in uniform gets a bottle of Coca-Cola for five cents, wherever he is and at whatever price." The company persuaded the politicians that it was very important to the war effort and freed from the rationing of sugar. During the European Recovery Program, PR became more established in Europe because US-based companies with the PR department created a European subsidiary.
In 1938, amid concerns about the drop in diamond prices and sales volume, De Beers and its advertising agency N.W. Ayers adopted a strategy to "strengthen associations in the public mind about diamonds with romance," while "bigger and finer diamonds, the greater the expression of love." This is known as one of America's "big campaign lexicon" for successfully persuading the public to buy expensive luxury items during times of financial stress through psychological manipulation. This also led to the development of the slogan "A diamond is forever" in 1947 and very influential on how diamonds are marketed thereafter. After World War I the first signs of PR as a profession began in France and became more established through the Marshall Plan.
War time propaganda
World War I
The first large-scale propaganda campaign organized was during World War I. Germany created the German Information Bureau to create pamphlets, books and other communications intended to support the truth of their goals, to encourage voluntary recruitment, to condemn enemies and persuade Americans to remain neutral in conflict. In response to the study of German propaganda, the British created a war propaganda agency called Wellington House in September 1914. Stories of atrocities, both real and alleged, were used to incite hatred against the enemy, especially after the "Belgian Rape" of 1915 France created the propaganda agency on 1914. Publicity in Australia leads to the appointment of a government ban on military design. Austria-Hungary used propaganda tactics to attack the credibility of Italian leadership and its war motives. Italy in turn created the Padua Commission in 1918, which led Allied propaganda against Austria-Hungary.
One week after the United States declared war on Germany in 1917, US President Woodrow Wilson established the US propaganda body, the Public Information Committee (Creel Commission), as an alternative to claims for media censorship by US troops and navy. The CPI spread positive messages to present an optimistic picture of the war and refute the cruel atrocities that were made to incite anger for the enemy. The CPI recruited about 75,000 "Four Minutes," volunteers who talked about war on social events for four minutes.
As a result of World War I propaganda, there is a shift in PR theory from focusing on factual arguments to one of the emotional appeal and psychology of the crowd. The term "propaganda" originally associated with religion and the church, became a more widely known concept.
World War II
Propaganda did not develop a negative connotation until it was used in Nazi propaganda for World War II. Although German World War I propaganda is considered more advanced than other countries, Adolf Hitler says that propaganda has been underutilized and claims that superior British propaganda is the main reason for losing the war. Nazi Germany created the Ministry of Enlightenment and Public Propaganda in March 1933, just after the Nazis took power. The Nazi Party took over the editorship of newspapers, created their own news organization and established a Nazi-controlled news organization in the conquered territories. The Nazi Party used posters, films, books and public speakers among other tactics.
According to the historian Zbyn? K Zeman, broadcasting became the most important medium for propaganda throughout the war. Posters are also used domestically and leaflets are dropped behind enemy lines by air ships. In the territory conquered by Germany, citizens can be put to death for listening to foreign broadcasts. Britain has four organizations involved in propaganda and is methodical about understanding its audiences in various countries. US propaganda focuses on the struggle for freedom and the relationship between war effort and industrial production. The Soviet poster also focuses on industrial production.
In countries where citizens are under government, aggressive propaganda campaigns continue during peacetime, while liberal democracies primarily use propaganda techniques to support the war effort.
Professional development
According to historian Eric Goldman, in 1940 public relations was taught at the university and was a dependable professional job in the same manner as lawyers and doctors. However, it failed to gain complete recognition as a profession due in part to the history of fraud. Author Marvin Olasky said in 1987 that the reputation of the profession was getting worse, while Robert L. Heath of the University of Houston said in 1991 that it evolved towards "true professional status." Academician J. A. R. Pimlott says it has achieved "quasi-professionalism." Heath says despite the newly discovered professionalism and ethics in the field, his reputation is still influenced by the history of exploitative behavior.
The number of media outlets increased and public relations talents from wartime propaganda entered the private sector. PR practice becomes common to achieve political, activist and corporate objectives. The development of the press into a more real-time media also led to increased supervision of public relations activities and those they represent. For example, Richard Nixon was criticized for "doubletalk" and "stonewalling" in his public relations response to the Watergate scandal.
The first trade association was formed in the US in 1947 with the Public Relations Society of America (PRSA), followed by the Institute of Public Relations (now the Chartered Institute of Public Relations) in London in 1948. Similar trade associations were created in Australia, Europe, South Africa , Italy, and Singapore. The Association of International Public Relations was founded in 1955. The Institute of Public Relations held its first conference in 1949 and in the same year the first English book on PR, "Public Relations and publication" was published by J.H. Brebner. The Association of International Business Communicators was founded in 1970. Betsy Ann Plank is called "the first woman PR" to become the first female president of PRSA in 1973.
Two of the largest PR companies today, Edelman and Burson-Marsteller, were founded in 1952 and 1953 respectively. Daniel Edelman created the first media tour of the 1950s by going on tour to the country with "Toni Twins," where someone has used professional salons and others have used Toni's home care products. It was also during this period that trade magazines like PR Weekly , Ragans and PRNews were founded. John Hill, founder of Hill & amp; Knowlton, known as the first international PR pioneer. Hill & amp; Knowlton was the first major US company to create a strong international network in the 1960s and 1970s. Both Edelman and Burson-Marsteller follow Hill & amp; Knowlton by setting up operations in London in the 1960s and all three began to compete internationally in Asia, Europe and other regions. Jacques Coup de Frejac is very influential in persuading US and British companies to also expand their PR efforts into the French market and to convince French businesses to engage in public relations activities. In the early 2000s, PR in Latin America began to develop at a pace "equivalent to industrialized countries."
According to the Global Public Relations Handbook , public relations evolved from a series of "press agents or publicity" into theories of theory and practice in the 1980s. Research is published in academic journals such as Overview of Public Relations and Journal of Public Relations Research . This leads to industry consensus to categorize public relations jobs into a four-step process: research, planning, communication, and action.
Social and digital
During the 1990s the specialization to communicate with specific audiences and in certain market segments emerged, such as investor relations or PR technology. New internet technologies and social media websites affect PR strategies and tactics. In April 1999, four managers from IBM, Sun Microsystems, National Public Radio and Linux Journal created "The Cluetrain Manifesto." The Manifesto forms 95 theses on how social media and internet technologies will transform business. It concludes that the market has become "smarter and faster than most companies," because stakeholders are getting information from each other. The manifesto "creates a storm" with strong critics and supporters. That same year, Seth Godin published a book on permission marketing, which advocated against advertising and supporting useful and educational marketing. Although initially controversial, in 2006 it became commonly accepted that social media has an important role in public relations.
Press releases, which have remained largely unchanged for over a century, began integrating digital features. BusinessWire introduced "Smart Newscast," which incorporated audio, video, and images, in 1997. This was followed by MultiVu multimedia releases from PRNewswire in 2001. The Social Media Release was made by Todd Defren of Shift Communications in 2006 in response to a blog written by journalist and blogger Tom Foremski titled "Die! Press release! Die! Die! Die!" Combining digital and social features is becoming the norm among wire services, and companies are starting to routinely make company announcements on their corporate blogs.
According to The New York Times, corporate communications shift from monologues to two-way conversation and new media also make it "easier for consumers to learn about mix-ups and mistakes." For example, after the Deepwater Horizon oil spill, BP tries to divert the blame to others, claiming the spill is not as important and focusing on science, while human-related stories of damage are emerging. In 2011, Facebook tried to covertly spread privacy concerns about its competitors' Google Social Circles. Chapstick created a communication crisis after allegedly, repeatedly deleting negative comments on his Facebook page. During the Iraq War, it was revealed that the US created a fake radio personality to disseminate pro-American information and pay Iraqi newspapers to write articles written by American troops.
See also
- Ad history
- Ad history in the UK
References
Further reading
- Cutlip, Scott Invisible Power: Public Relations: History (Lawrence Erlbaum Associates: 1994, second edition. 2013) ISBN 0-8058-1464-7.
- Cutlip, Scott M. "Invisible Power: A brief history of public relations." in Clarke Caywood, ed. Strategic and Integrated Public Relations Handbook (1997) pp: 15-33.
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Ewen, Stuart. PR! - A Social History of Spin (1996), popular history from left - Fones-Wolf, Elizabeth. "Creating a favorable business climate: Corporations and radio broadcasting, 1934 to 1954." Business History Review 73 # 2 (1999): 221-255.
- Gower, Karla. "Public relations of US companies in the progressive era." Communication Management Journal 12 # 4 (2008): 305-318.
- Heath, Robert L., ed. The public relations Encyclopedia (second edition, Sage Publications, 2013)
- John, Burton St. "The case for ethical propaganda in a democracy: A successful 1913-1914 railroad campaign from Ivy Lee." Public Relations Review 32.3 (2006): 221-228.
- John, Burton St., and Margot Opdycke Lamme. Pathway to Public Relations: Practical and Professional History (2014)
- Lamme, Margot Opdycke, and Karen Miller Russell. "Removing the spin: Towards a new theory about the history of public relations." Journalism and Monograph Communication 11 #.4 (2010)
- Miller, David, and William Dinan. "The rise of the PR industry in Britain, 1979-98." European Journal of Communication 15 #.1 (2000): 5-35.
- Miller, David, and William Dinan. A century of turning: How people's relationships spearhead corporate power (Pluto Press, 2007), View from left
- Miller, Karen S. "History of US Public Relations: Knowledge and Limitations." Communication yearbook 23 (2012): 381
- Russell, Karen Miller, and Carl O. Bishop. "Understanding the principles of Ivy Lee's declaration: Newspaper newspaper and magazine US on publicity and press agents, 1865-1904." Public Relations Review 35.2 (2009): 91-101. online
- Watson, Tom. "Evolution of measurement and evaluation of public relations." Public Relations Review 38 #.3 (2012): 390-398. online
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